Hidden in the sand: Phylogenomics unravel an unexpected evolutionary history for the desert-adapted vipers of the genus Cerastes.

The desert vipers of the genus Cerastes are a small clade of medically important venomous snakes within the family Viperidae. According to published morphological and molecular studies, the group is comprised by four species: two morphologically similar and phylogenetically sister taxa, the African horned viper (Cerastes cerastes) and the Arabian horned viper (Cerastes gasperettii); a more distantly related species, the Saharan sand viper (Cerastes vipera), and the enigmatic Böhme's sand viper (Cerastes boehmei), only known from a single specimen in captivity allegedly captured in Central Tunisia. In this study, we sequenced one mitochondrial marker (COI) as well as genome-wide data (ddRAD sequencing) from 28 and 41 samples, respectively, covering the entire distribution range of the genus to explore the population genomics, phylogenomic relationships and introgression patterns within the genus Cerastes. Additionally, and to provide insights into the mode of diversification of the group, we carried out niche overlap analyses considering climatic and habitat variables. Both nuclear phylogenomic reconstructions and population structure analyses have unveiled an unexpected evolutionary history for the genus Cerastes, which sharply contradicts the morphological similarities and previously published mitochondrial approaches. Cerastes cerastes and C. vipera are recovered as sister taxa whilst C. gasperettii is a sister taxon to the clade formed by these two species. We found a relatively high niche overlap (OI > 0.7) in both climatic and habitat variables between C. cerastes and C. vipera, contradicting a potential scenario of sympatric speciation. These results are in line with the introgression found between the northwestern African populations of C. cerastes and C. vipera. Finally, our genomic data confirms the existence of a lineage of C. cerastes in Arabia. All these results highlight the importance of genome-wide data over few genetic markers to study the evolutionary history of species.

Genomics reveals introgression and purging of deleterious mutations in the Arabian leopard (Panthera pardus nimr).

In endangered species, low-genetic variation and inbreeding result from recent population declines. Genetic screenings in endangered populations help to assess their vulnerability to extinction and to create informed management actions toward their conservation efforts. The leopard, Panthera pardus, is a highly generalist predator with currently eight different subspecies. Yet, genomic data are still lacking for the Critically Endangered Arabian leopard (P. p. nimr). Here, we sequenced the whole genome of two Arabian leopards and assembled the most complete genomic dataset for leopards to date. Our phylogenomic analyses show that leopards are divided into two deeply divergent clades: the African and the Asian. Conservation genomic analyses indicate a prolonged population decline, which has led to an increase in inbreeding and runs of homozygosity, with consequent purging of deleterious mutations in both Arabian individuals. Our study represents the first attempt to genetically inform captive breeding programmes for this Critically Endangered subspecies.

Cloacal microbiota are biogeographically structured in larks from desert, tropical and temperate areas.

BACKGROUND: In contrast with macroorganisms, that show well-documented biogeographical patterns in distribution associated with local adaptation of physiology, behavior and life history, strong biogeographical patterns have not been found for microorganisms, raising questions about what determines their biogeography. Thus far, large-scale biogeographical studies have focused on free-living microbes, paying little attention to host-associated microbes, which play essential roles in physiology, behavior and life history of their hosts. Investigating cloacal gut microbiota of closely-related, ecologically similar free-living songbird species (Alaudidae, larks) inhabiting desert, temperate and tropical regions, we explored influences of geographical location and host species on α-diversity, co-occurrence of amplicon sequence variants (ASVs) and genera, differentially abundant and dominant bacterial taxa, and community composition. We also investigated how geographical distance explained differences in gut microbial community composition among larks. RESULTS: Geographic location did not explain variation in richness and Shannon diversity of cloacal microbiota in larks. Out of 3798 ASVs and 799 bacterial genera identified, 17 ASVs (< 0.5%) and 43 genera (5%) were shared by larks from all locations. Desert larks held fewer unique ASVs (25%) than temperate zone (31%) and tropical larks (34%). Five out of 33 detected bacterial phyla dominated lark cloacal gut microbiomes. In tropical larks three bacterial classes were overrepresented. Highlighting the distinctiveness of desert lark microbiota, the relative abundances of 52 ASVs differed among locations, which classified within three dominant and 11 low-abundance phyla. Clear and significant phylogenetic clustering in cloacal microbiota community composition (unweighted UniFrac) showed segregation with geography and host species, where microbiota of desert larks were distinct from those of tropical and temperate regions. Geographic distance was nonlinearly associated with pairwise unweighted UniFrac distances. CONCLUSIONS: We conclude that host-associated microbiota are geographically structured in a group of widespread but closely-related bird species, following large-scale macro-ecological patterns and contrasting with previous findings for free-living microbes. Future work should further explore if and to what extent geographic variation in host-associated microbiota can be explained as result of co-evolution between gut microbes and host adaptive traits, and if and how acquisition from the environmental pool of bacteria contributes to explaining host-associated communities.

Habitat selection by the Spiny-tailed lizard (Uromastyx aegyptia): A view from spatial analysis.

Many factors affect the habitat selection for animal species, which in turn may greatly affect their distribution in different ecosystems. Understanding the processes that affect habitat selection is also critical for guiding and managing conservation initiatives. Our study aimed to assess the habitat selection by free-ranging Spiny-tailed lizard (Uromastyx aegyptia) by analyzing a geospatial data connecting its burrow parameters to different habitat characteristics within selected sites in Hail region, Saudi Arabia. We examined evidence and patterns of significant spatial clustering for (366) active burrows by linking their parameters (burrow entrance size, burrow entrance width and burrow entrance height), their reference geographical locations and, two habitat characteristics defined by soil type and vegetation cover. The objective of the analysis was to increase the understanding on the burrows aggregation process in the space and, to describe its possible relation to other spatial habitat configurations. Analysis of distances based on the Nearest Neighbor Index (NNI) and hotspots detection in Nearest neighbor hierarchical clustering (Nnh) suggested twelve (12) spatial clusters located within the study area. In addition, a spatial ordinary least square (OLS) and Poisson regression models revealed significant effects of soil type and vegetation cover on burrow parameters (OLS, p < 0.05; Poisson, p < 0.001), which indicate a strong association between burrows parameters and habitats characteristics. Findings from the study also suggest that other factors such as elevations, highways, and human settlement concentration spots could possibly play a major role in defining burrow spatial aggregation and furthermore have a significant impact on habitat selection.

Small and overlooked: Phylogeny of the genus Trigonodactylus (Squamata: Gekkonidae), with the first record of Trigonodactylus arabicus from Jordan.

Geckos of the genus Trigonodactylus are widely distributed in the sand deserts of the Arabian Peninsula. Three species of this genus are currently recognized, with a fourth one, Stenodactylus pulcher, which placement within Trigonodactylus has been tentatively suggested, but not yet confirmed. We present a phylogenetic analysis of the genus Trigonodactylus with new specimens collected in central Saudi Arabia and southern Jordan. New genetic data has been generated from three mitochondrial markers to investigate the phylogenetic relationships of all species of the genus and to assess the putative generic assignment of S. pulcher. Our results confirm that S. pulcher indeed belongs within Trigonodactylus, branching as a sister lineage to all other species of the genus. The new samples cluster within Trigonodactylus arabicus, thus confirming the genetic homogeneity of the species across its large and seemingly inhospitable range. The new specimen collected in southern Jordan represents the first record for the country and a considerable range extension to the northwest from all previously reported localities. Our findings and discovery of a new species for Jordan highlight the need of more field surveys to be carried out in the underexplored parts of Jordan and northern Saudi Arabia, as these places still hold a potential for new discoveries and are crucial for understating the biogeography of the Arabian herpetofauna.

Swimming through the sands of the Sahara and Arabian deserts: Phylogeny of sandfish skinks (Scincidae, Scincus) reveals a recent and rapid diversification.

Large parts of the Sahara Desert and Arabia are covered by sand seas and sand dunes, which are inhabited by specialized animal communities. For example, many lizards have developed adaptations to life in loose sand, including sand-swimming behavior. The best-known sand swimmers of the Saharo-Arabia are the sandfish skinks (genus Scincus). Although there are currently only four Scincus species recognized, their phylogenetic relationships have not yet been addressed in detail. We use eight genetic markers (three mitochondrial, five nuclear) and a complete sampling of species to infer the relationships within the genus. We employ multiple phylogenetic approaches to reconstruct the evolutionary history of these skinks and to assess the level of reticulation at the onset of their radiation. Our results indicate the presence of five strongly supported species-level lineages, four represented by the currently recognized species and the fifth by S. scincus conirostris, which does not form a clade with S. scincus. Based on these results we elevate the Iranian and northern Arabian S. conirostris to the species level. The two Saharan species, S. albifasciatus and S. scincus, are sister in all analyses. Deeper relationships within the genus, however, remained largely unresolved despite the extensive genetic data set. This basal polytomy, together with the fact that we detected no sign of hybridization in the history of the genus, indicates that the diversification of the five Scincus species was rapid, burst-like, and not followed by secondary hybridization events. Divergence time estimations show a Middle Pliocene crown radiation of the genus (3.3 Mya). We hypothesize that the aridification of the Saharo-Arabia that began in the Late Miocene triggered the initial diversification of Scincus, and that the subsequent expansion of sand deserts enabled their dispersal over the large Saharan and Arabian range. We discuss the evolution of body form in sand swimming lizards and ponder how Scincus retained their fully limbed morphology despite being sand swimmers that are typically limbless.

Molecular identification of Todiramphus chloris subspecies on the Arabian Peninsula using three mitochondrial barcoding genes and ISSR markers.

The Collared Kingfisher (Todiramphus chloris) is widely distributed across the Indian and western Pacific Oceans and consists of about 50 subspecies. Two different subspecies of T. chloris occur in the Arabian Peninsula: T. c. abyssinicus from the Red Sea coast and T. c. kalbaensis from the Arabian Sea coast in the United Arab Emirates and Oman. The aim of this study was to determine the molecular relationship between the two Arabian subspecies and to establish the first DNA barcodes from the Arabian Peninsula for this species. Three different mitochondrial genes were used: (i) cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI), (ii) 12S rRNA (12S) and (iii) NADH dehydrogenase-1 (ND1). The COI gene sequences of the two subspecies were 100% identical, while the 12S and ND1 gene sequences revealed a unique single nucleotide variation between the two subspecies. Thus, this single nucleotide variation can be used as a DNA barcode to discriminate between two subspecies. Furthermore, the genetic profile or fingerprint for both subspecies were compared using ten primers of the highly polymorphic nuclear markers (Inter Simple Sequence Repeat, ISSR). As expected, the DNA analysis of the ISSR markers was able to distinguish between the specimens of the two subspecies. These results suggest that T. c. abyssinicus and T. c. kalbaensis are not identical and thus belong to different subspecies. Besides, the sequences of the COI gene for T. c. abyssinicus and T. c. kalbaensis differs by only 1.28% from T. sanctus suggesting that the Arabian subspecies are closely related to the Sacred Kingfisher (T. sanctus).

Using multilocus approach to uncover cryptic diversity within Pseudotrapelus lizards from Saudi Arabia.

The agamid Pseudotrapelus lizards inhabit the mountainous areas of the Arabian Peninsula and eastern North Africa. Currently six Pseudotrapelus species are recognised, though diagnostic morphological characters are still lacking, creating great difficulty in describing new species. Recently, two specimens of Pseudotrapelus were collected from the vicinity of Riyadh in central Saudi Arabia, an area that was not sampled in previous phylogenetic studies. In here we used both mitochondrial and nuclear data to investigate the phylogenetic position of the new samples, and assess their phylogenetic relationships with the other recognised species of Pseudotrapelus from across the distribution range of the genus. We used a multilocus approach of haplotype networks, concatenated datasets and species trees, performed mitochondrial and nuclear species delimitation analyses, and estimated divergence times. In general, our results support previous molecular studies and uncover the presence of cryptic diversity within Pseudotrapelus. The phylogenetic structure of the genus is of two major clades and within them seven distinct, delimited phylogenetic groups belonging to the six recognised species and the seventh to the individuals from Riyadh. The Riyadh specimens were distinct in all analyses performed. We suggest that the new specimens from the Riyadh area are a distinct lineage, forming a clade with their phylogenetic relatives, P. sinaitus and P. chlodnickii. The clade formed by these three species diverged during the Late Miocene around 6.4 Ma, with cladogenesis possibly facilitated by vicariance and isolation caused due to climatic fluctuations and the progression of sandy areas. Our results suggest further morphological research is necessary to revise the taxonomic status of this lineage and of the entire genus.

Isolation and antimicrobial resistance of Escherichia coli isolated from farm chickens in Taif, Saudi Arabia.

OBJECTIVES: Poultry is one of the main sources of food in the world. Antimicrobial-resistant Escherichia coli can be transmitted to humans by contact with poultry waste or by contaminated poultry products, contributing to the increasing crisis of antimicrobial resistance. This study aimed to determine the incidence of antimicrobial resistance in E. coli isolated from chickens in Taif province, Saudi Arabia, and to identify the genes responsible for any resistance observed. METHODS: A total of 150 cloacal swabs were aseptically obtained from chickens from different farms, from which 180 colonies of E. coli were identified using standard microbiology procedures. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing was performed by the Kirby-Bauer disk diffusion method. The genes blaSHV, aac(3)-IV, tet(A), tet(B), aadA1, catA1, cmlA, ere(A) and sul1 were detected by PCR. RESULTS: Most of the E. coli isolates showed resistance to oxacillin (99%), lincomycin (98%) and oxytetracycline (97%). The prevalence of resistance to chloramphenicol (73%), ciprofloxacin (59%) and ampicillin (51%) was lower. Genes conferring resistance to ß-lactams (blaSHV) and tetracyclines [tet(A) and tet(B)] were observed at prevalences of 96% and 95%, respectively, among the E. coli isolates. Chloramphenicol (catA1 and cmlA) and erythromycin [ere(A)] resistance genes showed prevalences of 72% and 15%, respectively, whereas gentamicin [aac(3)-IV], streptomycin (aadA1) and sulfonamide (sul1) resistance genes were detected in 20%, 20% and 10% of the studied isolates, respectively. CONCLUSION: A significant prevalence of antimicrobial resistance genes was observed among E. coli isolates from farm chickens, supporting strict regulatory procedures for the use of antimicrobial agents.

A new species of the genus Amyrsidea (Phthiraptera: Amblycera: Menoponidae) parasitizing domestic chickens in Saudi Arabia.

Amyrsidea Ewing, 1927 is a genus of chewing lice comprising 52 species, divided into five subgenera: Amyrsidea sensu stricto, Argimenopon Eichler, 1947, Cracimenopon Carriker, 1954, Desumenopon Carriker, 1954 and Numidimenopon Scharf & Price, 1977 (see Price et al. 2003: 86), which parasitise a wide range of hosts belonging to the avian order Galliformes (see Price et al. 2003: 321). Species of Amyrsidea can be distinguished from species of Menacanthus Neumann, 1912-the other menoponid genus with species parasitic on the same hosts-by lacking ventral spinous processes in the head (Scharf & Price 1977: 815). Revisions of all subgenera and species of Amyrsidea, including keys for their identification, were published by Scharf & Price (1977, 1983) and Scharf & Emerson (1983, 1984).

MOSQUITOES (DIPTERA: CULICIDAE) OF THE WESTERN COASTAL AREA, KINGDOM OF SAUDI ARABIA: SPECIES COMPOSITION, ABUNDANCE, DIVERSITY AND MEDICAL IMPORTANCE.

An entomological survey was undertaken for two years to update the mosquito fauna of the 3 regions (Mecca, Al Madinah and Tabouk), of the western coast, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Six localies representing such Regions (lhif, Mecca, Jeddah, Yanbu, Daba and Haql) were sampled for larvae and adults. Nineteen soecies of six genera were reported of which genus Culex (57.89% sp.) were the most commo6, followed by Anopheles (21.05%) and Stegomyia, Ochlerotatus, Aedes and Culesita (5.26% each). Three species (Cx. sitiens, Cx. torrenlium and Am. v. arabiensis) were new reports in study area. A total of 10930 larvae and 33108 adults were collected of which those representing genus Culex were predominating (92.74% larva, 93.46% adult). Of the reported species, Cx. quinquefasciatus (47.11% larva, 57.52% adult) and Cx. pipiens (22.24% larva, 27.42% adult) Were the common ones. Both Taif and Tabouk reported the highest number of species (13 sp., 68.42%), followed by Jeddah (12 sp., 63.16%), Mecca (10 sp., 52.63%) and Yanbu (8 sp., 42.11%). Tabouk represented the maximum diversity with the highest Simpson index (1-D=0.65) and Shannon index (H=1.25) followed by Taif (1- D=0.54, H=1.01). Per sampling site, Jeddah reported the highest number of larvae (313.70), and Mecca had the highest adult number (670.18). A complete list of mosquito fauna of the western coast including 35. spp. was presented based on the present and previous surveys. The role of the reported mosquito species as disease vectors was discussed. The study concluded that the diversity and abundance of the different mosquito species, among which several vectors of diseases mainly malaria, Rift Valley fever, lymphatic filariasis and dengue fever may pause a risk of transmission and more spread of such disease in this part that contains the holy places which are visited all year round by millions of people from several countries.

Little known chewing lice (Phthiraptera) infesting crab plover Dromas ardeola Paykull, 1805 (Charadriiformes: Dromadidae) from the Red Sea.

Scanty information is available for many species of chewing lice of marine birds. Through this work we investigated one of most characteristic marine bird for chewing lice. Seven individuals of crab plovers Dromas ardeola Paykull, 1805 were trapped using standard mist nets on Humr Island in Farasan Archipelago, Saudi Arabia. Two species of chewing lice were found to infest these birds: Actornithophilus ardeolae Timmermann, 1954 of suborder Amblycera and Quadraceps brunneus (Nitzsch in Giebel, 1866) of suborder Ischnocera. Diagnostic characters, data of specimens examined, high definition photos and host distribution map are provided through this paper.

Trapping of Saker Falcon Falco cherrug and Peregrine Falcon Falco peregrinus in Saudi Arabia: Implications for biodiversity conservation.

The numbers of Falco cherrug and Falco peregrinus trapped during their migration over the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA) were investigated from published reports and through interviews with well-known trappers and dealers over several years (1989-2013). The number of trapped individuals increased for both species over a 23 year period, which is probably related to an enhanced trapping effort. Time series analysis suggests that the number of Saker Falcons being trapped is likely to be stable with annual fluctuations in the coming ten-year period, whereas the number of trapped Peregrine Falcons will probably decline with a small fluctuation initially. Using the population viability analysis suggests a high extinction rate for the Saker Falcon population migrating through KSA during the coming 10 and 20 years; whereas Peregrine Falcons probably take more than 100 years to reach the extinction threshold. However, the increase in the trapping period, especially in the spring, that has been observed during the last five years could increase the number of falcons trapped in the future. As both falcon species are migratory, implementing conservation actions across all range states is important to ensure a favourable conservation status for the Saker and Peregrine Falcons. Both species will benefit through the implementation of the Global Action Plan (GAP), developed by the Saker Falcon Task Force.

New records of species of Saemundssonia (Insecta: Phthiraptera: Philopteridae) infesting breeding terns in the Arabian Peninsula, with notes on their phylogeny and ecology.

Six species of terns, which breed on the Arabian Peninsula, were examined for head chewing lice of the genus Saemundssonia in four different islands around the coasts of Saudi Arabia, both in the Red Sea and in the Arabian Gulf. Four louse species were collected: Saemundssonia laticaudata, Saemundssonia melanocephalus, Saemundssonia meridiana and Saemundssonia sternae, of which three are recorded for the first time from this region. Also, we record three new host-louse associations for the world-Saemundssonia laticaudata and Saemundssonia sternae from white-cheeked terns and Saemundssonia melanocephalus from Saunders's terns-including a host-switch event of Saemundssonia laticaudata on white-cheeked terns in the Karan Island population. Gene bank data for the COI gene from seven species of Saemundssonia that infest marine birds were used to propose evolutionary trees using two different statistical methods: maximum parsimony (MP) and neighbour joining (NJ). The result indicated that the tree which was produced by NJ is likely to be more accurate as it appeared more compatible with hosts' phylogeny. The trees indicate relationships between tern Saemundssonia and congeneric species from other marine birds, especially from gulls. An ANOVA was also conducted to test the mean parasite load for each tern species studied, and results indicate that there is a relation between louse loads and colonization behaviour of the hosts. Data from lice examined and illustrations of lice and their hosts are also included.

Species on the rocks: Systematics and biogeography of the rock-dwelling Ptyodactylus geckos (Squamata: Phyllodactylidae) in North Africa and Arabia.

The understanding of the diversity of species in the Palearctic and the processes that have generated it is still weak for large parts of the arid areas of North Africa and Arabia. Reptiles are among their most remarkable representatives, with numerous groups well adapted to the diverse environments. The Ptyodactylus geckos are a strictly rock-dwelling genus with homogeneous morphology distributed across mountain formations and rocky plateaus from the western African ranges in Mauritania and the Maghreb to the eastern tip of the Arabian Peninsula, with an isolated species in southern Pakistan. Here, we use a broad sampling of 378 specimens, two mitochondrial (12S and cytb) and four nuclear (c-mos, MC1R, ACM4, RAG2) markers in order to obtain the first time-calibrated molecular phylogeny of the genus and place its diversification in a temporal framework. The results reveal high levels of intraspecific variability, indicative of undescribed diversity, and they do not support the monophyly of one species (P. ragazzii). Ptyodactylus species are allopatric across most of their range, which may relate to their high preference for the same type of structural habitat. The onset of their diversification is estimated to have occurred in the Late Oligocene, while that of several deep clades in the phylogeny took place during the Late Miocene, a period when an increase in aridification in North Africa and Arabia initiated.

Environmental proxies of antigen exposure explain variation in immune investment better than indices of pace of life.

Investment in immune defences is predicted to covary with a variety of ecologically and evolutionarily relevant axes, with pace of life and environmental antigen exposure being two examples. These axes may themselves covary directly or inversely, and such relationships can lead to conflicting predictions regarding immune investment. If pace of life shapes immune investment then, following life history theory, slow-living, arid zone and tropical species should invest more in immunity than fast-living temperate species. Alternatively, if antigen exposure drives immune investment, then species in antigen-rich tropical and temperate environments are predicted to exhibit higher immune indices than species from antigen-poor arid locations. To test these contrasting predictions we investigated how variation in pace of life and antigen exposure influence immune investment in related lark species (Alaudidae) with differing life histories and predicted risks of exposure to environmental microbes and parasites. We used clutch size and total number of eggs laid per year as indicators of pace of life, and aridity, and the climatic variables that influence aridity, as correlates of antigen abundance. We quantified immune investment by measuring four indices of innate immunity. Pace of life explained little of the variation in immune investment, and only one immune measure correlated significantly with pace of life, but not in the predicted direction. Conversely, aridity, our proxy for environmental antigen exposure, was predictive of immune investment, and larks in more mesic environments had higher immune indices than those living in arid, low-risk locations. Our study suggests that abiotic environmental variables with strong ties to environmental antigen exposure can be important correlates of immunological variation.

Detection of genes mediating beta-lactamase production in isolates of enterobacteria recovered from wild pets in Saudi Arabia.

AIM: To determine the genetic basis and types of beta-lactamase encountered among enterobacterial isolates of wild pets from the animal exhibit. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A total of 17 beta-lactamase-producing enterobacteria recovered from fecal samples of wild pet animals were analyzed for a selected beta-lactamase gene by polymerase chain reaction. RESULTS: Molecular analysis identified one or more ß-lactamase-encoding genes in 14 enterobacterial isolates as a single or gene combination. The most frequent extended-spectrum ß-lactamases types were TEM and CTX-M, and the most common AmpC enzymes were CMY-2 and DHA types. CONCLUSIONS: The study is the first in Saudi Arabia, have established the presence of ß-lactamase-encoding genes in the fecal isolates of wild pets.

Role of wild birds as carriers of multi-drug resistant Escherichia coli and Escherichia vulneris

Emergence and distribution of multi-drug resistant (MDR) bacteria in environments pose a risk to human and animal health. A total of 82 isolates of Escherichia spp. were recovered from cloacal swabs of migrating and non-migrating wild birds. All bacterial isolates were identified and characterized morphologically and biochemically. 72% and 50% of isolates recovered from non-migrating and migrating birds, respectively, showed positive congo red dye binding (a virulence factor). Also, hemolysin production (a virulence factor) was showed in 8% of isolates recovered from non-migrating birds and 75% of isolates recovered from migrating birds. All isolates recovered from non-migrating birds were found resistant to Oxacillin while all isolates recovered from migrating birds demonstrated resistance to Oxacillin, Chloramphenicol, Oxytetracycline and Lincomycin. Some bacterial isolates recovered from non-migrating birds and migrating birds exhibited MDR phenotype. The MDR isolates were further characterized by API 20E and 16S rRNA as E. coli and E. vulneris. MDR Escherichia isolates contain ~1-5 plasmids of high-molecular weights. Accordingly, wild birds could create a potential threat to human and animal health by transmitting MDR bacteria to water streams and other environmental sources through their faecal residues, and to remote regions by migration.